Formation of the Sacred Band of Thebes

The formation of the Sacred Band was a response to the political landscape following the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) and the Corinthian War (395–387 BCE), during which Sparta emerged as the dominant power in Greece. In 382 BCE, Spartans seized control of Thebes, a city striving for autonomy, establishing a garrison in the citadel overlooking it.

> "After the Peloponnesian War and the defeat of Athens, the Spartans regarded the Thebans as their primary enemies, the only ones likely to challenge them," wrote the historian Cornelius Nepos over two millennia ago. "Recognizing this, they placed their supporters in positions of power, while leaders of opposing factions were either killed or exiled."

Around the end of 379 and the beginning of 378 BCE, a group of exiles secretly returned to Thebes and rallied the citizens to revolt. They successfully expelled the Spartan garrison, purging collaborators among the populace. Other Boeotian cities, typically allies of Thebes, joined the rebellion, with support from Athens, eager to undermine a powerful rival.

Creation of the Sacred Band

With democracy reinstated, the Thebans were aware of the potential for Spartan retribution. They needed to organize swiftly for survival. At this critical moment, one of their leaders, Gorgidas, proposed the formation of the Sacred Band (Greek: hieros lochos)—a unit of hoplites made up of warrior-lovers. This group comprised 150 pairs of noble Thebans, committed to each other in life and death. The elite nature and devotion of its members, along with the protection of Eros, the god of love, were meant to lend the unit its “sacred” status.

Origins of the Sacred Band Concept

The Band consisted of three hundred members, not out of tribute to Spartan Leonidas, but because this number was typical for elite units in various city-states. It’s plausible that Gorgidas’s Sacred Band drew inspiration from earlier Theban military traditions. Why did he embark on such an unconventional approach?

Many Greek philosophers praised the bonds formed through pederasty, where a mentor would guide a younger companion through the intricacies of public life while developing a deep emotional connection. The older partner was called the “erastes,” while the younger was known as the “eromenos.” Although pederasty was particularly prominent in Athens, Thebes also had a reputation for male relationships, even with lesser age differences.

In forming the Sacred Band, Gorgidas heeded both philosophical insights and the experiences of his fellow soldiers. A comrade named Pammenes noted that Homer’s Nestor lacked tactical acumen for organizing troops by tribal or familial ties, suggesting that the eromenos should fight alongside their erastes. This idea wasn’t entirely new; Xenophon recounted tales of brave warriors like Epistenes of Olynthus, who led a unit of handsome men willing to die for their young companions. While there may have been homosexual relationships among Spartan warriors, they were not as institutionalized or publicly acknowledged as the pederasty in Athens.

Indeed, there’s an account of Spartan commander Anaxibius, who fought alongside his beloved until the end. However, such instances were rare. Thebans chose to formalize and militarize male affection. Upon reaching adulthood, the beloved would receive armor from his lover. The Sacred Band enlisted young men around twenty years old, with the oldest members completing their service by age thirty.

Combat Tactics of the Sacred Band

During this period, Greek warfare revolved around phalanx formation, where a dense array of hoplites advanced in several rows. Each warrior shielded his neighbor with the left side of his shield while wielding a spear with his right hand. This phalanx moved forward like a relentless force, with the front rows attacking while those behind pushed the formation onward. If a soldier fell, another would immediately take his place.

Conflicts between Greek city-states often devolved into exhausting standoffs between hoplite phalanxes. Cavalry, archers, and other auxiliary units played minor roles. The expertise of Greek hoplites, refined since the 7th century BCE, was well known to their adversaries, including the Persians.

Initially, Theban soldiers were dispersed across the front lines, intended to exemplify bravery. However, when Pelopidas became commander after Gorgidas, he implemented a significant shift. The Sacred Band then fought as a cohesive unit, focusing their assaults on specific points of the enemy’s phalanx.

The unexpected triumph of Pelopidas’ brave three hundred over a larger Spartan force at Tegyra in 375 BCE showcased the effectiveness of this strategy. The Spartans were taken aback by the Thebans' courage, particularly since the Sacred Band attacked at the location where Spartan commanders were stationed.

Following their deaths, the Spartan force of approximately fifteen hundred disbanded, resulting in a decisive defeat for Sparta. While the victory at Tegyra lacked strategic importance, it held immense propaganda value. The Thebans no longer feared the so-called “invincible” Spartans, and the Sacred Band proved its mettle. Nonetheless, concerns remained about whether they could withstand a full Spartan assault.

The Battle of Leuctra

At this juncture, Pelopidas’ ally, Epaminondas, emerged as a key figure. The two were believed to have been a pederastic couple. They had saved each other’s lives in past battles, a testament to their bravery rather than a mere emotional bond.

Interestingly, Epaminondas never married, instead proving to be a skilled politician, orator, and strategist. Four years after Tegyra, in the summer of 371 BCE, the Thebans faced the Spartans in a pivotal confrontation. The Theban army numbered 9,000, while the Spartan forces totaled around 12,000. Aware of the numerical disadvantage, Epaminondas took measures to bolster his troops' morale.

He relied on propaganda: he honored a local figure, Skedasos, whose two daughters had been victims of Spartan aggression, leading to their tragic suicides. Skedasos followed suit when his pleas for justice were met with mockery from Spartan leaders. The spirits of these victims were invoked to inspire the Thebans during battle.

The Spartans, recalling their earlier defeat at Tegyra, likely anticipated a formidable Theban force. However, Epaminondas had another surprise in store. He arranged the Theban army in an oblique formation, emphasizing a strong left flank that included the Sacred Band under Pelopidas’s command. This wing led the primary assault, while the weaker section of the army remained positioned to deter Spartan attacks from the side.

Ultimately, the robust flank featuring the Sacred Band broke through the main Spartan lines, causing panic among the enemy. The Thebans emerged victorious, losing only three hundred men compared to Spartan losses of between one and four thousand, including their king, Cleombrotus. Following such devastating losses, Sparta teetered on the brink of collapse, with families mourning their dead and the entire state, reliant on the subjugation of countless helots, facing existential threats.

In the concluding moments of the Battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas fought alongside his current eromenos, Asopichos. After the victory, Asopichos had trophies from the battle painted on his shield, which he offered to the temple of Apollo at Delphi, as recorded by historian Theopompus.

The Battle of Leuctra signified the end of Spartan dominance. It marked the beginning of a brief period of Theban supremacy over Greece, though this was short-lived, as the untimely deaths of pivotal leaders destabilized Thebes. Pelopidas was killed in a victorious encounter against the Thessalians at Cynoscephalae in 364 BCE, and two years later, Epaminondas, following a triumphant battle against a coalition of Achaeans, Spartans, and Athenians at Mantinea, demonstrated his leadership skills. After being mortally wounded, he learned of his victory, exclaiming, “I have lived long enough, for I die unconquered.” His eromenos, Caphisodorus, also fell alongside him, consistent with the Sacred Band's philosophy. These victories, although celebrated, were ultimately Pyrrhic, undermining Theban strength in the long run.

The Demise of the Theban Sacred Band

The end of this distinguished formation occurred at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. Macedonian forces decimated the allied Greek armies opposing their supremacy. The Sacred Band fought valiantly, but the lack of discipline among their allies led to a breakdown in formation. This vulnerability was exploited by Macedonian cavalry commanded by the young prince, Alexander. The allies, including Athenians led by the renowned orator Demosthenes, fled, leaving the Sacred Band encircled and ultimately destroyed.

As ancient historian Plutarch recorded, the commander of the unit, Theagenes, perished in battle. All his subordinates bore wounds from frontal attacks by Macedonian sarissas, indicating that they did not attempt to flee, nor were they pursued and struck from behind. Ironically, the Sacred Band met its end at the hands of Macedonians under King Philip II, who had once been a hostage in Thebes and had allegedly formed close ties with one of the Theban leaders, Pammenes.

To commemorate the warriors of the Sacred Band, a stone lion statue was erected at their burial site, either by the victorious Philip II of Macedon or by grieving Thebans. A century ago, excavations revealed weapons, pottery, 4th-century BCE coins, and the remains of 254 individuals, confirming that fewer than three hundred had survived. Yet, even if a single warrior had escaped, it would still mark the conclusion of the Sacred Band's legacy.